How Bhakti Literature Stabilised Odia Identity During an Age of Invasions?

Between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, large parts of the Indian subcontinent experienced sustained political instability due to repeated incursions by Sultanates and, later, Mughal expansion. These developments altered administrative systems, court cultures, and elite patronage structures across regions. Odisha was not insulated from these changes. From early raids by Bengal Sultanate forces to its eventual incorporation into the Mughal imperial system in the late sixteenth century, the region faced prolonged uncertainty in governance and sovereignty.

The Indo-Parthian and Indo-Synthian era: 1 AD (World History Maps)

Yet, unlike many regions where political change resulted in linguistic displacement or cultural fragmentation, Odisha retained a strong sense of linguistic and cultural continuity. One of the central reasons for this continuity was the role played by Odia Bhakti literature, which functioned not merely as a religious expression but as a stabilising cultural system operating largely outside the control of the state.

Temple-State Decline and the Shift Away from Courtly Culture

Prior to the fifteenth century, Odisha’s socio-political structure was closely linked to temple institutions, particularly the Jagannath cult at Puri, which combined ritual authority with royal patronage under the Ganga and later Gajapati dynasties. This temple-state model ensured cultural continuity as long as political sovereignty remained intact. However, as dynastic power weakened and external forces exerted pressure, this linkage became increasingly fragile.

Mughal administration, once established, was primarily extractive and peripheral in nature, focusing on revenue collection rather than cultural integration. In such a context, reliance on court-centred or state-supported cultural institutions would have made Odia identity vulnerable. Cultural authority, therefore, shifted toward decentralised, community-based forms of expression, with vernacular literature emerging as a key stabilising force.

Sarala Dasa and the Vernacularisation of Cultural Authority

A decisive early intervention in this shift was made by Sarala Das, whose Odia Mahabharata marked a foundational moment in the history of the language. Sarala Dasa did not produce a literal translation of the Sanskrit epic; he reworked it to reflect local social structures, moral priorities, and linguistic usage. At a time when Sanskrit continued to dominate religious and intellectual life, and Persian was gaining prominence in administration, this act asserted Odia as a legitimate vehicle for philosophical and ethical discourse.

The long-term implications of this vernacularisation were significant. Cultural knowledge was no longer restricted to Brahmanical or courtly elites but became accessible through oral recitation and communal listening. Ethical narratives were embedded within familiar social contexts, allowing the epic to function as a shared moral reference point. This shift ensured that cultural continuity did not depend on political stability or elite patronage, making it particularly resilient during periods of invasion and administrative disruption.

Epic Narrative as Social Regulation

Sarala Dasa’s Mahabharata addressed the ethical anxieties that accompany political instability. His retelling framed moral dilemmas within recognisable agrarian and kinship-based settings rather than abstract philosophical debates. Dharma was presented as situational and negotiated, reflecting everyday social realities. This approach provided communities with a stable ethical framework at a time when external political authority was either absent or unreliable. In this sense, the epic functioned as a form of social regulation, reinforcing norms and values without reliance on institutional enforcement.

The Panchasakha and the Decentralisation of Spiritual Authority

The consolidation of Odia Bhakti literature continued with the emergence of the Panchasakha, active between the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. The Panchasakha—Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Achyutananda Dasa, Ananta Dasa, and Jasobanta Dasa—did not operate as a formal organisation, but their writings articulated a shared philosophical orientation. They emphasised personal devotion, ethical conduct, and experiential knowledge while rejecting rigid ritualism and caste-based monopolies over spiritual access.

This approach had important social consequences. By minimising dependence on priestly mediation and institutional ritual, the Panchasakha reduced the vulnerability of spiritual life to political interference. Religious practice could continue within households and communities regardless of changes in the regime. This decentralisation of authority limited the ability of external powers to reshape Odia cultural life through control of institutions.

Jagannatha Dasa and the Bhagabata Tungi as a Vernacular Public Sphere

Among the Panchasakha, Jagannatha Dasa’s Odia Bhagabata had a particularly far-reaching impact. Its circulation led to the establishment of Bhagabata Tungi—community spaces where the text was read aloud and discussed collectively. These gatherings did not require formal literacy and were accessible across social groups. Over time, the Bhagabata Tungi became central sites for the transmission of the Odia language, ethical norms, and cosmological understanding.

Functionally, these spaces operated as a vernacular public sphere. While Mughal administration functioned in Persian and remained largely detached from local cultural life, the Bhagabata Tungi ensured that the Odia language and values continued to circulate widely. This parallel cultural system reduced dependence on state institutions for education and moral instruction, strengthening long-term cultural resilience.

Achyutananda Dasa and Cultural Responses to Crisis

The writings of Achyutananda Dasa provide insight into how Odia Bhakti literature addressed the psychological effects of prolonged instability. His texts frequently engage with themes of moral decline, social disorder, and cyclical time. Political upheaval is presented not as an unprecedented rupture but as a recurring phase within a broader cosmic order. This framing reduced the perception of invasion as civilisational collapse and encouraged communities to interpret instability as temporary rather than terminal.

Such a worldview had stabilising effects. By normalising crisis, Achyutananda’s writings helped sustain social confidence and continuity even when political circumstances were unfavourable. Cultural identity remained anchored in long-term cosmological narratives rather than short-term political outcomes.

Identity Formation Without Political Nationalism

Notably, Odia Bhakti literature did not generate an explicit political ideology or proto-nationalist movement. There were no calls for territorial sovereignty or organised resistance against imperial authority. Instead, identity was articulated through sustained linguistic use, shared ethical narratives, and everyday religious practice. Odia retained cultural prestige within literary and devotional domains even as Persian dominated administration. Authority remained embedded in community practice rather than state endorsement, limiting the capacity of external regimes to impose cultural transformation.

Bhakti Literature as Cultural Infrastructure

From an analytical perspective, Odia Bhakti literature functioned as cultural infrastructure. It enabled continuity across generations, connected individuals across caste and locality, and operated through multiple channels of transmission, including oral performance, collective reading, and manuscript circulation. Because it was decentralised and embedded in everyday life, it had no single point of failure. Political regimes could change without disrupting the circulation of language, values, and collective memory.

Culture Beyond the State

The historical experience of Odisha complicates assumptions that political domination necessarily leads to cultural erosion. While external invasions reshaped governance and economic structures, they did not dismantle Odia cultural identity. That identity was sustained through literary traditions that prioritised accessibility, decentralisation, and ethical coherence over institutional power.

Odia Bhakti literature demonstrates that long-term cultural stability is often produced not through confrontation or state patronage, but through sustained everyday use of language and narrative under conditions of uncertainty.

---

References

• Banerjee, S. (2006). Religion and Society in Eastern India. Oxford University Press.

• Dash, S. N. (1997). Cultural History of Orissa. Aryan Books International.

• Mishra, P. K. (2010). “Bhakti Movement in Odisha: A Regional Perspective.” Indian Historical Review, 37(2), 201–223.

• Panigrahi, K. C. (1981). History of Orissa. Kitab Mahal.

• Pattanaik, D. (2018). Jagannath: The Unifying Lord. Rupa Publications.

• Sen, A. (2005). The Argumentative Indian. Penguin Books.

• Tripathi, R. S. (1960). The Mughal Empire. S. Chand & Company.

• Mohanty, J. K. (1993). Odia Literature and Regional Consciousness. Odisha Sahitya Akademi.